Increase Mather

Increase Mather (1639–1723) was a prominent Congregational minister, theologian, and intellectual leader in colonial New England who served as president of Harvard College and wielded substantial influence over religious, political, and educational affairs in Massachusetts Bay Colony. Born in Dorchester, Massachusetts, Mather was the son of Richard Mather, himself a distinguished clergyman, and became one of the most influential figures of his generation through his prolific writings, his leadership of the Second Church in Boston, and his efforts to defend and reform Puritan theology during a period of significant social and religious change. His involvement in the Salem witch trials and his subsequent recantation of support for the trials remain subjects of scholarly debate regarding his role in one of New England's most notorious episodes. Mather's intellectual contributions, including his work on natural philosophy and his advocacy for scientific inquiry within a theological framework, helped bridge the emerging scientific revolution with Puritan religious thought. His tenure at Harvard and his numerous publications established him as a central figure in New England Congregationalism and a key intellectual architect of colonial American identity.

History

Increase Mather's early life and education positioned him to become a leading intellectual voice in colonial Massachusetts. Born on June 21, 1639, in Dorchester, he was the eldest son of Richard Mather, a prominent Congregational minister who had immigrated from England during the 1630s. Increase received his preparatory education in his father's household and demonstrated exceptional intellectual abilities from an early age. He entered Harvard College in 1651 at the age of twelve and completed his studies in 1656, demonstrating mastery of classical languages, theology, natural philosophy, and mathematics. Following his graduation, Mather embarked on an extended sojourn in England from 1658 to 1661, where he earned his master's degree and encountered the latest developments in theological and scientific thought during the period of the English Restoration. His time abroad exposed him to the work of the Royal Society and contemporary natural philosophers, perspectives he would bring back to New England and integrate into his theological writings.

Upon his return to Massachusetts, Mather established himself as a minister and intellectual leader. He initially served as a teacher at the Second Church in Boston in 1664, gradually assuming greater responsibilities until his position became effectively that of senior minister. Throughout the 1670s and 1680s, he emerged as a leading theological voice, publishing numerous works on covenant theology, ecclesiastical polity, and the spiritual state of New England. His involvement with the Salem witch trials in 1692 and 1693 represented one of the most controversial episodes of his career. While Mather did not participate directly in the trials, he initially provided theological sanction for the prosecution through his work "Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits," though he subsequently expressed reservations about the use of spectral evidence as proof of guilt. His evolving position on the trials reflected his broader commitment to rational theological inquiry and his discomfort with mass hysteria masquerading as spiritual discernment.

Mather's presidency of Harvard College from 1685 to 1701 and his continued influence until 1723 represented the culmination of his institutional power and intellectual authority. During his tenure, he worked to strengthen the college's curriculum, incorporating new developments in natural philosophy and mathematics while maintaining the theological foundations of Congregational education. He established the college's library as a significant scholarly resource and attracted noted scholars to the faculty. His presidential years were marked by considerable administrative challenges, including financial difficulties and internal disputes over ecclesiastical governance, yet he maintained Harvard's position as the primary educational institution for training New England's religious and intellectual elite. Even after relinquishing the presidency, Mather continued to publish works and maintain influence over intellectual and religious affairs until his death on August 13, 1723, at the age of eighty-four.

Culture

Increase Mather's contributions to colonial American intellectual culture extended far beyond institutional leadership to encompass theological innovation, natural philosophy, and the defense of Puritan orthodoxy against contemporary challenges. His literary output was extraordinary—he authored or compiled over one hundred thirty works, making him one of the most prolific writers of his era. His theological writings engaged with contemporary debates about covenant theology, the nature of conversion, and the role of the church in society. Works such as "Predestination and the Divine Foreknowledge" addressed fundamental questions of Reformed theology, while his ecclesiastical writings like "Ichabod, or a Discourse Shewing What by the Departure of the Glory from New England" lamented what he perceived as declining spirituality and moral decline in the region. These works were widely circulated throughout New England and contributed significantly to the intellectual discourse of Congregational churches.

Beyond theology, Mather engaged with natural philosophy in ways that distinguished him from many of his contemporaries. His interest in astronomical phenomena, meteorological observations, and natural history reflected his exposure to the Royal Society's empirical approach to understanding the natural world. He published accounts of comets, lunar eclipses, and other celestial events that sought to reconcile natural observation with theological significance. His willingness to engage seriously with empirical observation while maintaining theological sophistication helped establish an intellectual framework in which later New England thinkers could pursue natural philosophy without abandoning religious commitment. Mather's cultural legacy encompasses not only his specific theological positions but also his modeling of how a Puritan intellectual could engage with contemporary intellectual developments, maintain scholarly rigor, and exercise significant institutional and cultural influence in colonial society.

Education

Increase Mather's relationship with Harvard College fundamentally shaped colonial American higher education and established models of theological and intellectual training that persisted for centuries. As a student, Mather benefited from Harvard's rigorous curriculum emphasizing classical languages, theology, logic, and natural philosophy—a program that he himself would later defend and refine. The college in the mid-seventeenth century was still developing its institutional structures and pedagogical approaches, and Mather's generation of ministers represented the fruit of its earliest maturation as an educational institution. His return to Harvard as a fellow and later as president allowed him to bring both his own training and the intellectual advances he had encountered in England directly into the college's curriculum and governance.

During his presidency, Mather implemented educational reforms that updated Harvard's program to reflect contemporary developments in natural philosophy and mathematics while preserving its theological foundations. He expanded the library's collection, recruited new faculty members with specialized expertise, and advocated for a curriculum that prepared students for both ministerial and secular leadership. Mather recognized that New England's intellectual future required engagement with contemporary European thought, and he worked to ensure that Harvard students encountered not only traditional theological texts but also works representing newer developments in mathematics, natural science, and philosophy. His educational philosophy held that rational inquiry and theological commitment were compatible pursuits, and that training ministers required developing critical thinking skills and familiarity with a broad range of intellectual traditions. The educational approaches Mather championed at Harvard influenced other colonial institutions and contributed to establishing patterns of higher education in British North America that emphasized intellectual breadth alongside specialized theological training.

Notable People

Increase Mather's influence on subsequent generations of New England leaders and thinkers was profound and multifaceted. His son Cotton Mather (1663–1728) became perhaps the most prominent minister of the next generation, building upon and extending his father's intellectual legacy while pursuing his own distinctive theological and pastoral emphases. The two worked collaboratively on numerous projects and maintained a close intellectual relationship despite occasional differences in emphasis and approach. Increase Mather's extended family network included other significant religious figures such as his son Samuel Mather and his nephew William Stoughton, the chief judge of the Salem witch trials court, relationships that illustrate both the interconnected nature of New England's ministerial leadership and the complex family dynamics that sometimes placed Mather in difficult positions regarding controversial episodes.

Mather's relationships with other Harvard presidents and notable scholars reflected the small but intellectually vibrant community of educated men in colonial New England. He mentored numerous students who became ministers throughout the region, exerting influence over ecclesiastical affairs across multiple colonies. His correspondence with leading English theologians and natural philosophers, including members of the Royal Society, connected New England intellectual culture to broader Atlantic intellectual networks. Mather's position as an intellectual bridge between English and colonial American thought allowed him to shape how New England clergy understood and engaged with contemporary European developments. His influence extended to civil leaders as well, including governors and magistrates who consulted him on matters combining theological and political significance, establishing a model of ministerial influence in colonial governance that characterized much of New England's political culture.